Course Bibliography

Week 1

Kain, E. (2011, August 3). The inexplicable war on lemonade stands. Forbes. Retrieved August 8, 2014 from http://www.forbes.com/sites/erikkain/2011/08/03/the-inexplicable-war-on-lemonade-stands/

Rasmussen, S. (2014, August 4). Nanny-state mindset leads to police brutality. Real Clear Politics. Retrieved August 8, 2014 from http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2014/08/04/nanny-state_mindset_leads_to_police_brutality_123537.html

Stojkovic, S. (2014). Criminal justice organizations [VitalSouce bookshelf version]. Retrieved August 8, 2014 from http://digitalbookshelf.southuniversity.edu/books/9781305465695/outline/2

Zhao, J., Thurman, Q., & He, N. (1999). Sources of job satisfaction among police officers: A test of demographic and work environment models. Justice Quarterly, 16(1), 153–173. doi:10.1080/07418829900094091

I selected these links for the discussion on how I would re-organize my police force. I selected news stories to illustrate a current trend in law enforcement that I feel undermines the criminal justice system. As the organization of any agency depends on the goals of the agancy, I selected stories that would support the focus in goals I would set in that situation.

Week 2

Campbell, N. (2006). Correctional leadership competencies for the 21st century: Manager and supervisor levels. National Institute of Corrections, DOJ. Retrieved August 15, 2014 from http://static.nicic.gov/Library/020475.pdf

McCallum, D. (n.d.). Leadership within the Florida Department of Corrections. Florida Department of Corrections Retrieved August 15, 2014 from http://www.fdle.state.fl.us/Content/getdoc/5ca27f87-d4c4-4a79-b01f-11cc95e24af9/McCallum-David-paper-pdf.aspx

Stallworth, R. (2013, June 11). The war beyond the walls:We are under attack inside the walls and now outside of them as well. CorrectionsOne. Retrieved August 17, 2014, from http://www.correctionsone.com/officer-safety/articles/6270478-The-war-beyond-the-walls/

The COPS Office. (2009, September).Police labor relations: Interest-based problem-solving and the power of collaboration.Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, DOJ. Retrieved August 15, 2014 from http://www.cops.usdoj.gov/html/dispatch/September_2009/labor_relations.htm

The COPS Office. (2011). The impact of the economic downturn on American police agencies. Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, DOJ. Retrieved August 15, 2014 from http://cops.usdoj.gov/files/RIC/Publications/e101113406_Economic%20Impact.pdf

WATCH: Surveillance video of strong-arm robbery tied to Michael Brown. (2014) Fox News. Retrieved August 15, 2014 fromhttp://nation.foxnews.com/2014/08/15/watch-surveillance-video-strong-arm-robbery-tied-michael-brown

Wright, K. (1999, June 22). Leadership is the key to ethical practice in criminal justice agencies. Criminal Justice Ethics. Retrieved August 15, 2014 from http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Leadership+Is+the+Key+to+Ethical+Practice+in+Criminal+Justice...-a060060343

Week 2 was about factors that affect the goals of organizations, including ethics, resources, morale, public perception (including propaganda conducted against the organization); the discussion also pursued differences in leadership models. The week culminated with a paper focused on morale issues within the prison system.

Week 3

Bjelopera, J., & Finklea, K. M. (2014). Domestic Federal law enforcement coordination: Through the lens of the Southwest border. Congressional Research Service. Retrieved August 22, 2014 from http://fas.org/sgp/crs/homesec/R43583.pdf

Bodor, T., Thompson, F., & Demirçivi, F. (2003). Criminal justice cultures in the United States: A context for understanding aspects of organizational change. Center for Technology in Government. Retrieved August 19, 2014 from https://ctg.albany.edu/publications/journals/hpa_2004_criminal/hpa_2004_criminal.pdf

Louthan, W. C. (1974). Relationships Among Police, Court, and Correctional Agencies. Policy Studies Journal, 3(1), 30–37. Retrieved August 22, 2014 from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1541-0072.1974.tb01124.x/abstract

Miller, W. (1973). Ideology and criminal justice policy: Some current issues. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 64(2). Retrieved August 19, 2014 from http://www.hhs.csus.edu/Homepages/CJ/BikleB/Miller%20-%20Ideology%20and%20Criminal%20Justice%20Policy.htm

O'Leary, V., and Newman, D. (1970, July). Conflict resolution in criminal justice.

Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 7:2 pp. 99-119, doi: 10.1177/002242787000700201

Welsh, W. N., & Pontell, H. N. (1991). Counties in court: Interorganizational adaptations to jail litigation in California. Law and Society Review, 73–101. Retreived August 21, 2014 from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3053890

Week 3 discussion revolved around organizational conflict; both within an agency, and between organizations. I chose sources that gave examples of conflict as well as sources that illustrated how that conflict was resolved. I also chose sources that explained how specific conflict originated.

Week 4

Ebbesen, E. and Konecni, V. (1985). Criticisms of the criminal justice system: A decision making analysis. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 3(2), 177–194. Retrived August 29, 2014 from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=pbh&AN=12584413&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Harris, P. M., Petersen, R. D., & Rapoza, S. (2001). Between probation and revocation: A study of intermediate sanctions decision-making. Journal of Criminal Justice, 29(4), 307–318. doi:10.1016/S0047-2352(01)00090-3

Jones, M., & Kerbs, J. J. (2007). Probation and parole officers and discretionary decision-making: responses to technical and criminal violations. Federal Probation, 71(1), 9–15,60. Retrived August 29, 2014 from http://search.proquest.com.southuniversity.libproxy.edmc.edu/docview/213979040?pq-origsite=summon

Payne, B. K., & DeMichele, M. (2011). Probation Philosophies and Workload Considerations. American Journal of Criminal Justice: AJCJ, 36(1), 29–43. doi:10.1007/s12103-010-9101-3

Schwalbe, C. S., & Maschi, T. (2009). Investigating probation strategies with juvenile offenders: The influence of officers’ attitudes and youth characteristics. Law and Human Behavior, 33(5), 357–67. doi:http://dx.doi.org.southuniversity.libproxy.edmc.edu/10.1007/s10979-008-9158-4

Shook, J. J., & Sarri, R. C. (2007). Structured decision making in juvenile justice: Judges’ and probation officers’ perceptions and use. Children and Youth Services Review, 29(10), 1335–1351. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2007.05.008

In week 4, we investigated decsion-making in organizations and the factors that affected that. The week 4 paper centered on the reorganization of a juvenile agency based on setting goals and exploring the decision-making process that affects those goals. I selected sources that dealt with the factors that decision-makers had to consider within community corrections organizations.

Week 5

Nicholson-Crotty, S., Peterson, D. A. M., & Ramirez, M. D. (2009). Dynamic representation(s): Federal criminal justice policy and an alternative dimension of public mood. Political Behavior, 31(4), 629–655. doi:10.1007/s11109-009-9085-1

Petersilia, J. (1987). The influence of criminal justice research. RAND, Santa Monica, CA. Retrieved September 3, 2014 from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/106799NCJRS.pdf

Pratt, T., Gau, J., & Franklin, T. (2011). Key ideas in criminology and criminal justice. SAGE Publications. Retrieved September 3, 2014 from http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/36811_6.pdf

Sarre, R. (1999). Beyond “What Works?”A 25 year jubilee retrospective. Presented at the History of Crime, Policing and Punishment Conference, Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. Retrieved September 3, 2014 from http://192.190.66.70/media_library/conferences/hcpp/sarre.pdf

Willis, J. J. (2013). Improving police: What’s craft got to do with it? Ideas in American Policing, 16. Retrieved August 10, 2014 from https://www.policefoundation.org/sites/g/files/g798246/f/201306/IAP16_Willis_2.pdf

The Week 5 discussion was varied; however, three issues could be said to dominate, how public opinion affects criminal justice agencies, how research has affected how criminal justice agencies are organized, and the process of change within agencies. I selected sources on that basis.

Week 6 – Summary

How did you determine the sources for the data?

I use two types of searches for sources; in the first, I use the “Library Resources” page from the “My Academics” on the SUO website, finally selecting only peer-reviewed studies. In the second, I use Bing Search and look for peer-reviewed studies, but I mainly look for government or think tank research when using Bing.

I use a program called Zotero to save my research results; when using the SUO “Library Resources” pages, I can use 1 clcik functionality to save the study to my research library. Zotero allows me to set tags to sources, so that I can skim a study for relevance, tag it for further reading ( as an example, I could tag a source I intend to use for this week's discussion as “wk6disc1”), and quickly move on to further research. (Zotero can also save web pages)

Where did you concentrate the majority of your research?

I have moved from using the Bing search to now using the Library Resources/Zotero combination for the ease of use. In addition, by using peer-based studies, the information I use is more likely to be accurate (and thus accepted by those reviewing my work)

I do find that I have a tendency to collect more material then I use, and to skim material that I know I won't use for the current project. On the other hand, I can save any info I find interesting to my Zotero database for possible later use.

How did you analyze the data to convert to information to capture the main points of the material?

Unfortunately, due to the compressed time nature of the online program, most of the time I am scanning a study for a a support for a point I am trying to make. I very rarely read the entire study. I have gone back later to read a study and find that I used an argument out of context three times in 5 courses. I do try to use support quotes that are quantitive/objective as opposed to those based on judgement, but I don't hesitate to use point-of-view perspective as long as I identify it as such.

Finally...

If anyone is interested in Zotero, their website is

https://www.zotero.org/

I haven't quite learned how to share my library yet, but I think you can see it at

https://www.zotero.org/stevedisme/items

For those interested in networking, I'm at

http://www.linkedin.com/in/stevedurchin/

I'm sorry I haven't interacted with everyone in the class, it was a BIG class this time around. Thanks to everybody for their insights!

Kurz Manor and Longview: Organizational Reforms Proposal for Private Prisons Management LLC

Kurz Manor and Longview: Organizational Reforms Proposal for Private Prisons Management LLC

Private Prisons Management is faced with several issues at it's two prison units, Kurz Manor and Longview. Kurz Manor has allowed several escapes and is staffed by inexperienced correctional officers. Longview is plagued by inmate violence. Both units suffer from low morale and high turnover. These problems can be addressed by organizational development of Private Prisons Management as a whole, from the corporate level to the two units themselves. The first step in this process is to identify the models of organization we will be achieving, and the theories those models are based upon. It is then necessary to identify the sources of resistance that may be expected to oppose these changes, and to foresee ways of overcoming that opposition. Methods of increasing the effectiveness of the organization and methods of building trust and team support of staff will need to be included in this discussion. Finally, proposed reforms will need to identify methods of increasing job morale.

To begin, it must be recognized that the history of correctional methods in the United States reveals a “noncoherent jumble” of polices; as correctional policy is based upon the will of the people, which, as Carlson contends, has varied in both attitude and expectation over time. (2001, p. 1) However, as Doble and Klein report, it remains a constant that the public is preoccupied with personal safety. (2009, p. 293) In order to make the most effective use of our limited resources (specifically in experienced officers) to achieve the goal of keeping the public safe, a hierarchal corporate model of responsibility branching down into the prison units will be implemented. The intention is to give first line supervisors the greatest amount of discretion at the beginning of the organizational change, and as line staff gains experience and competence, formally transfer greater discretionary power to the line officers themselves. Current staff will be distributed between the two prison units, with the more experienced officers selected as first-line supervisors. In addition, Kurz Manor will be redesignated and staffed as a supermax prison, as Pizarro & Narag suggest that “prison administrators assert that supermax prisons are effective management tools because they serve as a general deterrent within the correctional population”. (2008, p. 29) Using a supermax model for the more dangerous inmates will also increase levels of safety for staff, public, and other inmates. The organizational model with be paired with a control model for prison management. Salinas explains the control method in DiIulio’s typology of prison management as based upon punishment; this punishment must be swift and visible to other inmates in order to create and maintain prison order. (2009, p.22) Considering the current lack of discipline and control in both prison units, it must be understood that the safety of the public, the safety of the prison staff, the safety of the inmates themselves, and the reputation of the company cannot not be maintained in prisons where escapes and inmate violence are common occurrences. According to Maziarka, a common measure of effective prison management is the level of inmate misconduct.(2013, p.1), so we will be base our reforms on this concept. Escapes and inmate violence reflect a lack of current compliance to that measurement. One reason the criminal justice system uses private prisons is to provide management expertise, as Jing explains the instrumental perspective argument.(2010, p.264) If the company cannot meet it's requirements to the state, we will lose the contract. Finally, we can not lose sight of the underlying reasons we need to maintain a controlled prison environment; Mackenzie compares the justice theory model and the incapacitation model theory in that the former is based on retributive notions of deserved punishment and that in the latter as simply as stating that offenders cannot commit crimes against the public while they are in prison. Mackenzie summarizes thus, “It is also generally accepted that some individuals should be incarcerated for long periods of time both as retribution for the seriousness of their offenses and because they pose threats if released. (2001, pp. 9-10)

It can be anticipated that we may receive opposition from the officer's union, the inmates' organizations, personal opposition from guards whose interests or power relationships have been upset. We must recognize the interests and the influence of the unions, which Doob & Gartner assert work to preserve jobs for their members, oppose attempts to cut correctional budgets, or assert the importance of imprisonment as a response to crime. (2011, p. 789) However, we should collaborate with the unions and recognize the “positive role unions can and do play in working with management to solve problems, implement change, make reforms, and handle crises.” (the COPS Office, 2009, para. 2) In dealing with personal opposition from guards whose interests may be affected (such as by reassignment to a unit whose location is inconvenient) we should make an effort to identify and mitigate such conflicts if possible, We should also be wary of situations in which the personal interests are not so pure:

...winners are often agency members who are skilled at political wars but who are not necessarily excellent or productive workers. As a result, good employees who foresee they will become losers may take early retirements, change jobs, or continue to accept their paychecks while opting out of the productive process. Moreover, mediocre employees with friends in high places may find rewarding niches in the system within new organizational arrangements as a result of their allegiance (sucking up) to the “friends.” (Stojkovic, 2014, p. 440)

The method for overcoming opposition from pro-inmate organizations will simply be the correlation between lax control polices and inmate misconduct, escape, and violence. We should also remember that these organizations support policy which ignores the “safety and concerns” of correctional staff. (Department of Corrections and Community Supervision, 2002, para.5)
There are several methods of increasing the effectiveness of the organization as well as building trust and team support of staff. The first is to utilize participative leadership within the hierarchy; while this seems a contradiction in terms, a formal method of addressing line concerns can be built into any organization. Even one of the most autocratic organizations in the American system, the United States Marine Corps, uses a “request mast” process that allows the line Marine to address any level of command. The next most important tool we can use is training; One of the issues that contributes to lax discipline is a lack of training. Training must emphasize officer safety, as safety is also a morale issue (which will be discussed shortly). Campbell asserts that team building needs to done with the understanding that the goals and purposes of the organization are made clear. ( 2006, p.151)

Job morale is an integral part of our goals; it contributes to high turnover which leads to inexperience which leads to lax prison control. Micieli describes a correctional officer's life as one filled with confrontation, mendaciousness and force and one in which the officer is daily challenged mentally, physically, and on integrity. (2008, p. 5) Farkas identifies not only the unique nature of correctional employment, but the factors that make it a high stress occupation, including the stress created by working in a low resource environment.(2001, p.20) One area of organizational focus should be controlling prison gangs. Carlson asserts that any veteran corrections officer will identify the greatest challenge to prison management is controlling gangs (2001, p. 10) This should improve morale. Ways of improving officer pay should be re-examined. Finally, it is imperative to implement a stress management program similar to the one out lined by Finn in Addressing Correctional Officer Stress: Programs and Strategies. Issues and Practices. (2000)
In conclusion, to address the lax control in our prison units that lead to inmate escapes and violence requires that our corporation and it's prison units be reorganized. This organization needs to be based on the goals of a prison and on the realities that comprise the situation. By identifying the problems of low resources and lax resources and the factors that cause those situations, and by identifying the sources of resistance to potential change, we can map out the tools and methods we will use to make effective change to the organization at all levels which will allow us to attain our goals in an efficient manner.

References

Campbell, N. (2006). Correctional Leadership Competencies for the 21st Century: Manager and Supervisor Levels. National Institute of Corrections. Retrieved August 15, 2014 from http://static.nicic.gov/Library/020475.pdf

Carlson, P. M. (2001). Prison interventions: Evolving strategies to control security threat groups. Corrections Management Quarterly, 5(1), 10. Retrieved September 5, 2014 from http://search.proquest.com.southuniversity.libproxy.edmc.edu/docview/214557581/8808E7AE2A4941FDPQ/2?accountid=87314

Carlson, P. M. (2001). Something to lose: A balanced and reality-based rationale for institutional programming. Corrections Management Quarterly, 5(4), 25. Retrieved September 5, 2014 from

http://search.proquest.com.southuniversity.libproxy.edmc.edu/docview/214558117/90B453A87C804C7APQ/3?accountid=87314

Department of Corrections and Community Supervision. (2002). Association ignores public safety, maligns staff to promote inmates’ issues. NYS Department of Correctional Services. Retrieved August 17, 2014, from http://www.doccs.ny.gov/PressRel/2002/gangi.html

Doble, J., & Klein, J. (2009). Punishing criminals, the public’s view: An Alabama survey. Federal Sentencing Reporter, 21(4), 291–293. doi:http://dx.doi.org.southuniversity.libproxy.edmc.edu/10.1525/fsr.2009.21.4.291

Doob, A. N., & Gartner, R. (2011). American imprisonment and prison officers’ unions. Criminology & Public Policy, 10(3), 781–790. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2011.00746.x

Farkas, M. A. (2001). Correctional officers: What factors influence work attitudes? Corrections Management Quarterly, 5(2), 20. Retrieved September 5, 2014 from

http://search.proquest.com.southuniversity.libproxy.edmc.edu/docview/214563384/BAF2FB352AED49D6PQ/3?accountid=87314

Finn, P. (2000). Addressing Correctional Officer Stress: Programs and Strategies. Issues and Practices. U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs. Retrieved August 16, 2014 from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED449457

Jing, Y. (2010). Prison privatization: a perspective on core governmental functions. Crime, Law and Social Change, 54(3-4), 263–278. doi:http://dx.doi.org.southuniversity.libproxy.edmc.edu/10.1007/s10611-010-9254-5

Mackenzie, D. (2001). Sentencing and Corrections in the 21st Century: Setting the Stage for the Future. Evaluation Research Group Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice. Retrieved September 3, 2014 from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/189106-2.pdf

Maziarka, K. (2013). Managing Misconduct: Prison Management Meets Inmate Behavior. Journal of the Institute of Justice and International Studies, (13), J1–X. Retrieved September 4, 2014 http://search.proquest.com.southuniversity.libproxy.edmc.edu/docview/1511121910?pq-origsite=summon

Micieli, J. (2008). Stress and the Effects of Working in a High Security Prison. Rockville, MD: National Institute of Justice. Retrieved August 16, 2014 from http://www.nyscorrections.org/224105.pdf

Pizarro, J. M., & Narag, R. E. (2008). Supermax Prisons: What We Know, What We Do Not Know, and Where We Are Going. The Prison Journal, 88(1), 23–42. doi:10.1177/0032885507310530

Salinas, G. (2009, Summer). A Preliminary Analysis: Prison Models and PrisonManagement Models and the Texas Prison System. Texas State University. Retrieved September 4, 2014 from https://www.academia.edu/1195462/A_Preliminary_Analysis_Prison_Models_and_Prison_Management_Models_and_the_Texas_Prison_System

The COPS Office. (2009, September).Police labor relations: Interest-based problem-solving and the power of collaboration.Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, DOJ. Retrieved August 15, 2014 from http://www.cops.usdoj.gov/html/dispatch/September_2009/labor_relations.htm

Stojkovic, S. (2014). Criminal justice organizations [VitalSouce bookshelf version].

CJ Admin Week 5 Discussion 1 & 2; Planned Change::Prison Management

A correctional facility uses dominance and violence to keep its prisoners under control so that they do not think of committing crimes once they're out of prison. The employees of this facility are unhappy and think it is unethical to use force with prisoners. However, the public is happy, and they feel safer that their prisoners are being kept under cont

To what extent does an agency's dependence on public opinion impede or encourage planned change? Provide an example of a significant research study done in the criminal justice field. How have the results of this research study revolutionized the working of the criminal justice system?

2

What changes should the management of the above mentioned correctional facility make to keep the employees happy and prevent the public from going against the facility? What are the positive effects of research in the criminal justice profession since the President's Commission in 1967? What are the negative effects?

Because planned change depends on accurate forecasting in order to be unhindered by limited resources (amongst other factors), forecasting must include considerations of public opinion. Public opinion will not only play a part in possible crescive change towards policy in general, but has a direct impact on budgeting and thus on resources. “The rational politician knows that, if their

policy votes deviate too far from the opinion of their constituents, they risk their

electoral futures”(Nicholson-Crotty, Peterson, & Ramirez, 2009, p. 630) Nicholson-Crotty et al continue, “The electoral connection should be particularly strong to deviations in criminal

justice policy from public opinion”. (2009, p.635) Thus effective, rational, planned change must forecast how the public will react to not to just the proposed change but to any consequences the planned change might cause. Criminal justice organizations that can not accurately foresee these issues will likely be beset with resource issues related to budgeting.

In 1975, Douglas Lipton, Robert Martinson, and Judith Wilks published a study of rehabilitation programs and their effectiveness, The Effectiveness of Correctional Treatment: A Survey of Treatment Evaluation Studies . Martinson then wrote an article in The Public Interest in which he stated that “rehabilitative efforts that have been reported so far have had no appreciable effect on recidivism” (Pratt, Gau, & Franklin, 2011, p.72) This point of view was capitalized on by both liberal and conservative policy-makers who opposed the current indeterminate sentencing standards. The influence of conservative policy makers eventually shaped sentencing policy to get tough on crime, and produced specific policies such as “Three Strikes” laws and Truth in Sentencing guidelines. Sarre mentions the Supreme Court finding of Mistretta v. United States, in which the Court upheld federal sentencing guidelines that had removed the goal of rehabilitation from consideration when sentencing convicts. (1999, p.5) It has been argued that these policies have led to overcrowding in prisons ( although the idiotic “War on Drugs” is a more likely culprit for this issue, and I see few things as blatantly dishonest as assigning an ideological blame for overcrowding on sentencing guidelines when the bulk of the increase can be accounted for on drug charges), and it has also been argued that these policies have been responsible for the drop in crime over the last twenty years (although other factors may include demographic changes and higher rates of suburbanization) Petersilia notes not just the controversy caused by Martinson's work, but found it of “critical” influence. (1987, p. vi)

Nicholson-Crotty, S., Peterson, D. A. M., & Ramirez, M. D. (2009). Dynamic representation(s): Federal criminal justice policy and an alternative dimension of public mood. Political Behavior, 31(4), 629–655. doi:10.1007/s11109-009-9085-1

Petersilia, J. (1987). The influence of criminal justice research. RAND, Santa Monica, CA. Retrieved September 3, 2014 from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/106799NCJRS.pdf

Pratt, T., Gau, J., & Franklin, T. (2011). Key ideas in criminology and criminal justice. SAGE Publications. Retrieved September 3, 2014 from http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/36811_6.pdf

Sarre, R. (1999). Beyond “What Works?”A 25 year jubilee retrospective. Presented at the History of Crime, Policing and Punishment Conference, Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. Retrieved September 3, 2014 from http://192.190.66.70/media_library/conferences/hcpp/sarre.pdf

Lipton, Martinson, and Wilks

Mistretta v. United States

Why does the rehabilitation crowd constantly pop off about the failure of deterrence, ignore all evidence suggesting the fallibility of rehabilitiation, and remain completely silent on the value of incapicitation?

Considering that prison staff share one overriding goal with the public, that of keeping criminals incapacitated from causing harm to the public at large, it is necessary to bring about organizational development with the goal of maintaining guard morale and job satisfaction while performing their duty to society. Doble and Klein report that the public is preoccupied with personal safety (2009, P.293) If the public's opinion is that control over inmate behavior benefits society, and that perception conforms to prison reality, then a training program and a management initiative must educate guards regarding the benefits of that policy. Salinas identifies the basic objectives of prison staff as maintaining security and order. (2009, p.12)

In DiIulio’s typology of prison management, the control model is based upon punishment; Salinas states that this punishment must be swift and visible to other inmates in order to encourage compliance with prison order. (2009, p.22) Skarbek contends that prison staff can be prevented from maintaining this order by corruption and and by punishment costs (2012, p.96) Indeed, maintaining order is of obvious concern for prison staff, as Stafford points out that CO's have one of the highest rates of on-the-job-injury which is directly tied to inmate violence.( 2013, para. 2) The goal of our organizational development should center on these concerns.

Marquart studied an informal system of force in a Texas prison unit; although it was effective in maintaining control, he found that the the methods were illegal and possibly based on racial grounds.(1986) This study is useful in contrasting methods and highlights the necessity of a formal and legally sanctioned method of use of force.

The positive effects of research have included a more realistic examination rehabilitation, a reductiion in the ideal of rehabilitation as a goal in crime control, a better use of police resources in “hot spot” policing, and the idea of a rational approach using the scientiifc model in improving police services. Willis,with some justification, describes the resistance to such reform from LE agencies, and discusses ways to better mesh research with police experience. He concludes that advancing police reform relies on focusing on what can be gained by unity between LE and researchers, not by focusing on the differences. (2013, p. 11)

The negative effects of research are mainly tied with the continuation of the “poverty pitfall” research coming out of the Chicago School. The “poverty pitfall” is my description of the fundamentally incorrect idea that poverty causes crime. The continuation of this line of thought (and of the similar lines originating in Marxist “thought”) have resulted in a dogma, not a body of research. The negative effects from such include anti-LE propaganda, identity politics, and dishonest journalism in portraying violent criminals as victims.

Doble, J., & Klein, J. (2009). Punishing criminals, the public’s view: An Alabama survey. Federal Sentencing Reporter, 21(4), 291–293. doi:http://dx.doi.org.southuniversity.libproxy.edmc.edu/10.1525/fsr.2009.21.4.291

Marquart, J. W. (1986). Prison guards and the use of physical coercion as a mechanism of prisoner control. Criminology, 24(2), 347–366. Retrieved September 4, 2014 from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=i3h&AN=16305288&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Salinas, G. (2009, Summer). A Preliminary Analysis: Prison Models and PrisonManagement Models and the Texas Prison System. Texas State University. Retrieved September 4, 2014 from https://www.academia.edu/1195462/A_Preliminary_Analysis_Prison_Models_and_Prison_Management_Models_and_the_Texas_Prison_System

Skarbek, D. (2012). Prison gangs, norms, and organizations. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 82(1), 96–109. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2012.01.002

Stallworth, R. (2013, June 11). The war beyond the walls:We are under attack inside the walls and now outside of them as well. CorrectionsOne. Retrieved August 17, 2014, from http://www.correctionsone.com/officer-safety/articles/6270478-The-war-beyond-the-walls/

Willis, J. J. (2013). Improving police: What’s  craft got to do with it? Ideas in American Policing, 16. Retrieved August 10, 2014 from https://www.policefoundation.org/sites/g/files/g798246/f/201306/IAP16_Willis_2.pdf

CJ Admin Week 5 Notes

Mental health courts, juvenile courts, vets courts, sharia courts

Crescive change is inadvertent or unplanned, independent of an organization's control, and may come about in spite of organizational efforts at self-direction. Crescive change can result from environmental influences on an organization or from internal organizational conflict 416

Law enforcement agencies, especially intelligence-gathering agencies, such as the FBI and CIA, kept crucial information to themselves and had informal policies not to share information with other agencies. The commission recommended that such practices be immediately altered for the sake of national security. 416

absolute nonsense – see gorelick wall

  Purposive change results from conscious, deliberate, and planned efforts by organizational members, typically managers.

Performance gap

 Unexpected and unintended consequences following a routine agency performance may create repercussions that make a performance gap evident. Such routine activities often have the potential to upset the agency's dynamic equilibrium (Chin, 1966; Downs, 1967). For example, the discovery of police corruption will upset the balance and stability of a police agency. Also, prisons may be replete with brutality and corruption or may be managed by inmate gangs, but this corruption or lack of control by the prison staff may not be apparent until it becomes manifest in a riot or an inmate disturbance. 418

The optimal approach to creating substantial change in an agency is to enter into a deliberate and rational process of planned change. A behavioral view suggests, however, that most organizational change is not purely rational or deliberate. Planned change requires that decision makers come to rational decisions. To do so, they must possess all pertinent information and must not be constrained by time or other resource limitations in the planning and decision-making process. 418

 W. Edwards Deming (1986), recognized for developing total quality management (TQM

The basis of successful analysis for decision making and, hence, for planning is a “continuous cycle of formulating the problem, selecting objectives, designing alternatives, collecting data, building models, weighing costs against performance, testing for sensitivity, questioning assumptions and data, reexamining the objectives, … and so on, until satisfaction is achieved or time or money forces a cutoff”

420*421

forecasting

The identification of problems is crucial to planning. Planners who perceive a performance gap need to analyze the root causes of the gap or problem. This process involves looking through a layer of possibilities to extract the probable basic causal factors. For example, we often hear that low morale in a given police agency is causing a low level of productivity. However, morale and productivity are not necessarily causally related (Perrow, 1986). It is more likely that workers with set goals are productive (Hiam, 1999) and will have high morale. 423424

Rational planning requires that an agency's goals are congruent rather than contradictory, are clear and known to agency members or decision makers, and that means–ends relationships are understood (Hudzik and Cordner, 1983). However, goals for criminal justice agencies are often vague and conflicting. Means–ends relationships and methods to achieve agency goals are often unknown or uncertain. Rehabilitation of criminal offenders, for example, can take on several meanings and is but one of many goals of corrections. To the extent that rehabilitation requires a degree of freedom from prison routines for 425426inmates, it may come squarely into conflict with security concerns of the custodial staff 425-426

resistance to change

established routine

unions opposed to the shift can 427428petition the city council or even use the media to get public support against the move to community policing.

change-ready organizations share the following characteristics:

• . High complexity in terms of professional training of organizational members

• 2. High decentralization of power

• 3. Low formalization

• 4. Low stratification in differential distribution of rewards

• 5. Low emphasis on volume (as opposed to quality) of production

• 6. Low emphasis on efficiency in cost of production or service

• 7. High level of job satisfaction among organizational members

429



many states are attempting to build treatment centers for the sex offenders and are being met with severe resistance from the communities in which they plan to locate the centers. Local community members do not want institutions for sex offenders in their backyards. 430



  A change as fundamental as creating community corrections centers may run into resistance from the public. Organizations whose members are unionized face another potentially powerful constraint on change. Management– labor contracts often call for specific behavior on the part of both management and labor. These agreements reinforce particular routines and make them unalterable for the duration of the contract. 431



Organizational development (OD) focuses on the environmental influences of an organization. The process attempts to alter simultaneously a system's values, routines, and structures in an attempt to create an atmosphere in which obstacles to change can be identified and minimized (French, 1969). Also, OD is a planned change effort that involves a total system strategy with the goal of making the organization more efficient (Beckhard, 2006). Traditionally, OD programs have been the responsibility of a single change agent, an individual whose sole role is to promote change within a system. The change agent may come from within an agency—usually from management—or may be a consultant from outside the agency. 436
To paint a drearier picture, winners are often agency members who are skilled at political wars but who are not necessarily excellent or productive workers. As a result, good employees who foresee they will become losers may take early retirements, change jobs, or continue to accept their paychecks while opting out of the productive process. Moreover, mediocre employees with friends in high places may find rewarding niches in the system within new organizational arrangements as a result of their allegiance (sucking up) to the “friends.” 440



Symbolic usage: Use of research to justify a specific decision, such as a budget.



Conceptual usage: Data used to enlighten and inform, yet not used in decision making.



Police departments, courts, and corrections agencies all exist in highly political environments. At the upper levels of organization management in those environments, many questions of policy are strongly tied to questions of value and preference. No matter how defensible a practice may be on research grounds, no one can afford to be seen as insensitive to community standards—whether that means being seen as soft on crime or as excessive in the use of force or other forms of social control. Facts may play a secondary role when decisions are driven by such political considerations. 454



The writing style and narrow dissemination of academic research have been identified as major reasons that some administrators report that research findings are of little use in their decision-making process 454 455



Academic researchers and practitioners may have different views on the value of data. Expertise in methodology and statistics gives researchers confidence that conclusions based on the analysis of data are technically sound and rational; the better the methodology, the greater confidence they have in their conclusions. For practitioners, however, additional expectations may need to be met.



Practitioners must be convinced first of all that research findings are relevant to the problems they face. National studies or research done in other jurisdictions may seem too distant to them, despite the soundness of the methods. Furthermore, because even the best studies must acknowledge their limitations, policy makers may be hesitant to accept their conclusions. Practitioners may be far less comfortable than academics with notions of probability, confidence levels, and statistical significance. Thus, academics need to do a better job communicating the meaning and value of such ideas. 455



For the practitioner, however, it is the outlier rather than the typical case that often demands attention.455



still more basic problem has been raised by some academics, who question whether social science research has reached a level of sophistication sufficient to merit influencing public policy. Elliot (1990) responded to a call for greater influence (see Petersilia, 1993) by sounding a note of caution. He argued that criminologists should be more hesitant to offer advice to policy makers. Although experimental design research of the highest quality has become more common, Elliot notes that such studies are still few in number and that little data on criminal justice have been collected over a long enough period of time to ensure confident conclusions. 456

Preliminary Organizational Plans for the Incoming Director, State Juvenile Bureau.

Preliminary Organizational Plans for the Incoming Director, State Juvenile Bureau.

As the incoming Director for the State Juvenile Bureau, I wanted to spend some time outlining my plans for the Bureau. The goal of every leader should always be to leave his organization better off then when he arrived. I intend to reorganize the Bureau to be better off as far as effectively achieving the goals it was established to accomplish. I know there is some organizational conflict between the Board and the Bureau, and my strategy involves mitigating that conflict, as well as reducing any introrganizational stresses that have arisen. Finally, I will detail the processes we will use to make more efficient decisions; equity, accuracy, consistency with theory, consistency with resources, and making decisions that contribute to future decisions.

My plan is to reorganize the Bureau on a hierarchal basis with a formalized process for participative leadership for each level of responsibility, including the base level of the officer. Every decision should be made by the person who is accountable for that particular responsibility. I plan on being a directive leader. However, decision-making is more effective when all available information, including consequences, has been made available to the decision maker. One issue that we experience is the problem of working within bounded rationality; “judicial officials and probation officers in the juvenile court are required to make numerous decisions about the intake, processing, and disposition of juvenile offenders within limited time frames and with limited information.(Shook & Sarri, 2007, p. 1336) Reducing the problems this issue causes can only happen when the people that will implement the decision have been involved with the process of making the decision. This plan, although autocratic, will allow for an established level of discretion in areas the officers should be knowledgeable in.

Let me define the missions of the bureau so that I can outline my plans for more effective adherence to the goals; Historically, “three mandates were adopted for juvenile justice system and probation interventions in what has become known as the Balanced Approach: to protect public safety, to hold youths accountable for their offenses, and to promote rehabilitation” (Schwalbe & Maschi, 2009, p.358) Furthermore, “ the underpinning of juvenile justice has historically been parens patriae which emphasizes furthering the best interests of the child “ (Lowe, Dawson-Edwards, Minor, & Wells, 2008, p.138). Of course, realistically appraising any organizational situation requires an understanding of the conflicts that organization experiences, both externally and internally. To deal with internal politics I would study and recognize the informal power structures, and attempt to formalize these relations when possible based on expert power and competence.

To understand our extremal conflict, I posit that The Board itself operates from it's own influences;“policy makers and the public demand accountability from these decision makers based on perceptions that juvenile crime is increasing and that, as a result, they need to take a more hard-line approach with youth” (Shook & Sarri, 2007, p. 1336) I feel the need to communicate to the Board that not all juvenile offenses are actually crimes, I would explain to the board about status offenses, and the concept of “aging out of delinquency”, as Holman and Ziedenber contends(2006, p. 6) and finally discuss the severity of mala in se offenses, and the need to protect society from them. I would reassure them that our goals involve recognizing this severity of offense in treatment of juveniles, “particularly those involving whether to incarcerate a youth, involve some judgments about youths level of risk to public safety or reoffending” (Perrault, Paiva-Salisbury, & Vincent, 2012, p. 487). Finally, I would remove some conflict by instituting a policy to identify and remove employees whose partisanship, or interest in “showing up” the Board members, is more important to them then achieving the goals of the bureau.

There are several processes which aid in the efficiency of decision making in the bureau. The first of these is equity, and the understanding that all juveniles are treated the same under the law and due process.. The second process involves the concept of accuracy; “The first crucial step for promoting juvenile justice practices that are consistent with the RNR approach is identification of youths' risk for reoffending and criminogenic needs using a valid, developmentally appropriate risk/needs assessment tool.” (Vincent, Guy, Gershenson, &.McCabe, 2012, p.385) . Since adherence to our goals requires a consistency with theory (as our goals are based on theory), I would require an organization-wide educational program to aid every employee in understanding our goals; it's not necessary to set up a doctoral program, but the basic theory our daily activities and decisions are based on should be an integral part of every officer's knowledge base. Our organizational effectuation also requires consistency with resources and we need to communicate with other agencies and avoid the following type of situation; “These staff groups have little contact with each other except regarding juveniles who drift from child welfare to juvenile justice or in courts in small communities where some of the same persons may be serving both delinquent youth and child welfare clients“ (Shook & Sarri, 2007, p. 1338). Finally we need to make decisions that contribute to future decisions, another way of describing this is by using a cybernetic approach in which “both the process and the outcome should help to improve decision making in the future” (Stojkovic, 2014, p.373).

In conclusion, we are looking forward to a juvenile system in which we accomplish our goals of protecting both the youth of our society and our society itself. We will do this by an established chain of command in which officers use their competence to make recommendations to the system as a whole and to use discretion in their areas of responsibility and competence. Furthermore, we will seek to reduce organizational conflict. Finally, we will set this organization up to improve effectuation in decision-making by recognizing the processes of equity, accuracy, consistency with theory, consistency with resources, and making decisions that contribute to future decisions.

References

Holman, B.& Ziedenberg, J. (2006),.The dangers of detention: The impact of incarcerating youth in detention and other secure facilities. Washington, D.C. Justice Policy Institute. Retrieved February 15, 2014 from http://www.justicepolicy.org/images/upload/06-11_REP_DangersOfDetention_JJ.pdf

Lowe, N. C., Dawson-Edwards, C., Minor, K. I., & Wells, J. B. (2008). Understanding the Decision to Pursue Revocation of Intensive Supervision: A Descriptive Survey of Juvenile Probation and Aftercare Officers. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 46(3/4), 137–169.

Perrault, R.. Paiva-Salisbury . M., & Vincent, G. . (2012). Probation Officers’ Perceptions of Youths’ Risk of Reoffending and Use of Risk Assessment in Case Management. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 30(4), 487–505. doi:10.1002/bsl.2015

Schwalbe, C. S., & Maschi, T. (2009). Investigating probation strategies with juvenile offenders: The influence of officers’ attitudes and youth characteristics. Law and Human Behavior, 33(5), 357–67. doi:http://dx.doi.org.southuniversity.libproxy.edmc.edu/10.1007/s10979-008-9158-4

Shook, J. J., & Sarri, R. C. (2007). Structured decision making in juvenile justice: Judges’ and probation officers’ perceptions and use. Children and Youth Services Review, 29(10), 1335–1351. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2007.05.008

Stojkovic, S. (2014). Criminal justice organizations [VitalSouce bookshelf version]. Retrieved August 31, 2014 from http://digitalbookshelf.southuniversity.edu/books/9781305465695/id/ch12-P148

Vincent, G., Guy, L.,Gershenson, B. &.McCabe, P.. (2012). Does Risk Assessment Make a Difference? Results of Implementing the SAVRY in Juvenile Probation. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 30(4), 384–405. doi:10.1002/bsl.2014

CJ Admin Week 4 Discussion- Rational Decision Making

The discretion that exists in the criminal justice system is of a type that leaves decision makers relatively free to assign outcomes...to particular defendants but constrains the set or range of options that the decision maker can choose from (Ebbesen & Konecni, 1985, p179)

One particularly desirable feature of intermediate sanctions is their capacity to meet the proportionality

requirement of just desserts-based sentencing systems (Harris, Petersen, & Rapoza, 2001, p.308)

Intermediate sanctions' poor performance is often attributed to greater opportunities for discovery of

technical violations relative to less intensive punishment (Harris, Petersen, & Rapoza, 2001, p.308)

The high risks of revocation attached to property, drug, and DWI arrests relative to technical violations and arrests for other offenses indicate that decision-makers view violations that threaten public safety, and particularly strangers, in a harsher light than those that bring about harm mainly to the probationer in question.Harris, Petersen, & Rapoza, 2001, p.316)

an individuals ability to think critically and to make an informed choice is at home in a society that seeks to balance individual rights with public safety (Jones & Kerbs, 2007, p. 10)

Nichols is revoking Jim's probation based on the goals of the organization he serves; these goals are based on underlying theory. The underlying theories that Nichols is basing this decision ton are the punishment theories of just-desserts and incapacitation, as well as the due-process model of justice. Harris, Petersen, and Rapoza assert that community supervision programs are desirable due to the “capacity to meet the proportionality requirement of just desserts-based sentencing systems.” (2001, p. 308). These theories lead to Nichol's goals of keeping the public safe as well as protecting Jim's rights. Harris et al contend that community supervision decision-makers set higher risks to technical violations on drug offenses and “violations that threaten public safety, and particularly strangers, in a harsher light” (2001, p.316). Jim's interactions with minors and his drug use fit this criterion.

The organizational theory that allows Nichols to make such a decision is a flat model of responsibility. Ebbesen and Konecni make the argument that “the discretion that exists in the criminal justice system is of a type that leaves decision makers relatively free to assign outcomes...to particular defendants but constrains the set or range of options that the decision maker can choose from” (1985, p179); Jones and Krebs also laud this discretion as serving the organizational goals by balancing public safety with due process rights (2007, p. 10) Nichols needs the kind of information such as Jim's charges of soliciting minors to determine whether Jim presents a threat to public safety; in addition, Nichols needs the information regarding Jim's technical violations to determine whether Jim has fully satisfied the just-desserts proportionality of punishment, or whether those technical violations mitigated punishment since Jim did not meet his end of the supervised treatment arrangement.

Ebbesen, E. and Konecni, V. (1985). Criticisms of the criminal justice system: A decision making analysis. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 3(2), 177–194. Retrived August 29, 2014 from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=pbh&AN=12584413&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Harris, P. M., Petersen, R. D., & Rapoza, S. (2001). Between probation and revocation: A study of intermediate sanctions decision-making. Journal of Criminal Justice, 29(4), 307–318. doi:10.1016/S0047-2352(01)00090-3

Jones, M., & Kerbs, J. J. (2007). Probation and parole officers and discretionary decision-making: responses to technical and criminal violations. Federal Probation, 71(1), 9–15,60. Retrived August 29, 2014 from http://search.proquest.com.southuniversity.libproxy.edmc.edu/docview/213979040?pq-origsite=summon

It is impossible for Nichols to make a completely rational decision regarding the revocation of Jim's probation. Any organization, or agent of an organization that holds decision-making responsibility is subject to the effects of bounded rationality; “although we may strive for rational decisions, achieving rationality is unlikely and probably impossible. “ (Stojkovic, 2014, p.348). Payne and DeMichele point out just two of the influences that can impede purely rational decisions:” (1) the level of importance they place upon certain activities and (2) the amount of time they dedicate to specific tasks” (2011, p. 30) . Payne and DeMichele also discuss the cultural influences that can affect factor 1.

In Jim's case, Nichols can not KNOW that Jim is a sexual predator without previous convictions; he has to make a rational decision bounded by the information that Jim solicited, but did not assault two minors. Nichols must make his decision based on the solicitation charges and the a priori fact that Jim is willing to break the law on other issues.

Payne, B. K., & DeMichele, M. (2011). Probation Philosophies and Workload Considerations. American Journal of Criminal Justice : AJCJ, 36(1), 29–43. doi:10.1007/s12103-010-9101-3

Stojkovic, S. (2014). Criminal justice organizations [VitalSouce bookshelf version]. Retrieved August 29, 2014 from http://digitalbookshelf.southuniversity.edu/books/9781305465695/id/ch12-P148

Organizational Recommendations to Spur Recruitment: Mitigating Officer Shortage at Centerville Police Department

Organizational Recommendations to Spur Recruitment: Mitigating Officer Shortage at Centerville Police Department

Steve Durchin

Recruitment Officer

Office of the Chief

Centerville Police Department

Report Submitted August 24, 2014

Abstract

Due to organizational changes made at Centerville PD and the effects these changes have had on staffing and morale, we have found that potential officers do not want to be employed at the department. This report discusses possible changes to our organization that will make recruitment here more attractive to potential officers. These changes involve plans for police socialization, power implementation, and efforts to reduce organizational conflict at the interorganizational and intraorganizational levels.

Table of Contents

1. Introduction. 3
2. Police Socialization 4

1. Police Culture Background 4
2. Strategies to Aid Recruitment 5
3. Anticipated Issues 5
1. Distribution of Power 6
   1. Types of Power Arrangements 6
   2. Officer Concerns 7
   3. Implementation Strategy 7
2. Reduction of Organizational Conflict 7
   1. Current Issues 7
   2. Mitigation Strategies 9
3. Conclusions 9
4. Recommendations 10
5. References 11

Introduction

Due to recent difficulty Centerville Police Department has had in recruiting new officers, the Department authorized a study to analyze reasons for this difficulty. The researchers found that recent organizational change at the Department is partly to blame; another factor lies in reduced access to the traditional recruitment pool. The second condition is something we have little control over, but must be kept in mind as we vie for recruits. The recent organizational changes, however, are something we do have control of. Specifically, the research group found that the changes have resulted in poor job responsibility definitions, an inconsistent workload varying from overload to boredom, an abuse of power by line supervisors in assigning workloads, and most crucially, that changes in policing policies are vastly different then what new recruits are expecting.

It is not surprising that the recent changes have led to negative consequences; Crank and Langworthy point out that “organizationally-based reform efforts, however, seldom have achieved the desired goals”(1992, pp.339-340). Furthermore, Braga & Weisburd contend that community policing

has not been found to be effective in preventing crime( 2006, p. 13) These new programs of policing add to the traditional influences of stress on the police officer. Shane identifies two areas that contribute to officer stress, “job content” (or the operational environment), and “job context” (or the organizational environment), and that “job context” is part of the daily hassle. (2013, p. 1) Braga and Weisburd suggest that a plethora of police reform has added to the workload of the line officer; community oriented policing, problem oriented policing, “quality of life” policing (2006, p 5) Part of the “job text” strain comes from additional demand upon the officer; “To effectively implement a community policing or problem-oriented approach, police officers require more technical skills, and greater language and cultural awareness. In addition to new tasks for the organization, new skills

may be required of individual police officers” (Raymond, 2005, p.6) Shane notes that even management changes intended to improve communications between line and management can cause issues. (2013 p. 2)

This office intends to mitigate some of these negative consequences through a tripartite strategy aimed at socialization of officers, an effective distribution of power within the department, and approaches to resolving organizational conflicts. There will necessarily be some fluidity within this discussion, as social norms are affected by formal and informal power structures, social norms influence organizational conflict, conflict management results in the reorganization of both formal and informal power distribution. Each iteration of change within these arrangements can either add stress to an officer's workday, or lessen that load. However, this is necessary, as the “process of personnel

selection, training, monitoring, and support is key to a successful police department. Every

police manager and supervisor shares in the responsibility for recruiting, developing, and

retaining high-quality individuals” (Raymond, 2005, p.1)

Police socialization

Police Culture Background

Paoline notes that the traditional description of police culture are based upon the cultural norms of police that manage the personal strains involved with being a policeman.(2004, p. 207) Herbert defines some of the normative orders that shape this culture;the law, bureaucratic control, adventure/machismo, safety, competence, and morality (1998). As we shall see, several of these orders have relation to the concepts of reform we will be suggesting.

New recruits are attracted to police work in the anticipatory stage of socialization. The views that potential recruits hold of how the department operates plays a role in whether that potential recruit decides to join our department. Crank and Langworthy discuss how a police department can lose legitimacy in the eyes of the public; this concept can be extrapolated to the perceptions that potential recruits have as well. (1992, p.358) The Police Academy, and the rookie tour are the sources of formal socialization for new policemen, although the rookie tour will expose the new policeman to the real working conditions of police life beginning the informal socialization process. Informal socialization will continue through the policeman's career.

Strategies to Aid Recruitment

Strategies for adjusting the socialization process are mainly dependent of the results of other reforms; either reform makes our department an attractive prospect for recruits, or it does not. Ongoing training also plays a role in the socialization process.

Crank and Langworthy, in their discussion of legitimacy, contribute the idea of ceremonial ritual to re-establish legitimacy. (1992, p.358) For our purposes, we can institute a public relations campaign describing the success of our reforms in reducing the strain previous reforms have added to the policeman' life.

We also suggest that an ongoing training program to reinforce the positive norms of police culture be established; this training program will also maintain awareness of the department's overall strategies. Training should be conducted by officers that have been selected on their capability of having a direct influence on officers. Raymond suggests a parallel between military training programs and police training programs in there intense initial entry and ongoing career training.(2005, xi) This ongoing training contributes to the collective socialization process.

Anticipated Issues

We can foresee opposition to these changes from the influences that introduced the original changes in the first place; “it is a common lament among those seeking to improve policing that the policing 'craft'” or the culmination of knowledge based on hands-on experience, is a feature of police culture that poses a formidable obstacle to implementing new policies and practices” (Willis, 2013, p.2) However, Willis does go on to discussing ways in which policing theory can be combined with policing experience for a better overall policing strategy. We hope to aspire to this in our proposed reforms.

Distribution of Power

Types of Power Arrangements

French and Raven attempt to define power from it's various sources of origination; legitimate power, referent power, expert power, reward power, and coercive power ( 2001, pp. 309-326) These bases of power are reflected in various ways throughout police command structures and through working relationships. Although researchers tend to criticize the paramilitary command structure, more focus should be placed on the tall power structure of bureaucracy. The bureaucratic structure is based on legitimate power, and theoretically provides cohesion and coherence. (Herbert, 1998)

One negative consequence is that command structures have also “become increasingly bureaucratized, especially since the 'reform era' when police leaders struggled to combat extensive corruption problems.” (Chappell & Lanza-Kaduce, 2010, p. 2) This leads to the types of intraorganizational conflict we shall discuss in that section.

Other types of power can be expressed either within the chain of command without being bureaucratized; Morreale contends that “Knowledge, trust and power are three essential forces of high-performance leadership” (n.d., p.5) Expert and referent power are reflected here. Chief Vollmer is a prime example of this in that he used his leadership qualities to reform police practice nationally. (Crank & Langworthy, 1992, pp.353)

Officer Concerns

Officers have expressed a range of concerns related to efficiency, personal safety, and their relation to power. Efficiency plays a large part of job satisfaction, and thus acts a mitigating factor in job strain. “job dissatisfaction is a result of strict policies, overemphasis on rules, inadequate working conditions, and poor interpersonal relationships” (Zhao, Thurman, & He, 1999) . Increased workload from implementation of new policy adds to this ; “Problem-oriented policing is a concept that calls on a patrol officer to address many calls for service in a substantive manner rather than through the superficial approach, which is common in many police systems. “(Cooper, 1997, p. 89) Considering the lack of understanding new roles and the possible lack some skills, the immediate peer support of using two-unit patrols becomes apparent. Indeed, del Carmen and Guevera found that officers perceived two-unit patrols both more effective and safer then one-unit patrols. (2003, p.146)

Implementation Strategy

There is an overlap between the strategies that deal with distribution of power and those that reduce organizational conflict. However, one organizational change we recommend at this point would be the implementation of two-unit patrols; we find that having two officers on scene increases the likelihood of having required skills, increases efficiency, increases officer safety, and thus increases the levels of referent power, expert power, and coercive power for the line officer.

Reduction of Organizational Conflict

Current Issues

We touched on the issue of bureaucracy and undue burdens on workload in the “Distribution of Power” section, but return to the subject with specific examples of organizational conflict. Herbert gives us an example of an LAPD officer who was engaged in a pursuit of a felony suspect, but was ordered to cease the chase by his watch commander. The officer continued the chase and captured the suspect. The officer was interested in enforcing the law; although his action violated the bureaucratic chain of command during the pursuit. (1998). In the case of our own department, the actions of line supervisors created vertical conflict with unfair and excessive work assignments. However, line officers are not the only ones who experience intraorganizational conflict; line supervisors also find issues with command structures; “This was evident in the frustrations that the supervisors discussed about peers who did not confront poor behavior in officers, tried to be friends and not supervisors to line officers”(Serier, 2011, p. 84)

Organizational conflict is often the result of a lack of unity in attaining realistic goals; the structure of organizations is often dependent on those goals. We feel that the direction of our policing strategy can benefit from the examination of our overall policy goal. Braga and Weisburd point us in the right direction with the concept of “hot spot” policing; 10% of victims represent 40% of victimizations, 10% of offenders cause over 50% of crime, and 10% of locations are the site of 60% of crime. (2006). In addition, Crank and Langworthy cite increasing body of study suggesting preventive patrol is not effective in preventing crimes. (1992, pp. 344-345). Finally, Guffey, Larson, & Kelso found a negative correlation between police officer staffing and the crime rates. (2010)

Braga and Weisburd quote Bratton (the NYPD reformer that turned that city's crime rate around) on effective chain of command:

We created a system in which the police commissioner, with his executive core, first e powers and then interrogates the precinct commander, forcing him or her to come up with a plan to attack crime. But it should not stop there. At the next level done, it should be the precinct commander, taking the same role as the commissioner, empowering and interrogating the platoon commander. Then , at the third level, the platoon commander should be asking his sergeants... all the way down until every one in the entire organization is empowered and motivated, active and assessed and successful. It work s in all organizations, whether it’s 38,000 cops or Mayberry, R.F.D (Braga & Weisburd, 2006, p. 6)

Mitigation Strategies

Our first strategy for combating organizational conflict also has the benefit of a more effective power distribution as discussed in the previous section. Our solution is to move to a flatter command structure with two-unit patrol teams on the bottom, and the minimum amount of supervisors required to ensure effective supervision, to support the line teams, and to ensure that each level of police is treated fairly. This strategy also minimizes vertical conflict within the department.

Our second strategy is to pursue a “pulling levers” strategy focusing on the “hot spots” of crime. Braga and Weisburd describe the “pulling levers” strategy as identifying key offending patterns, then collaborating resources from other agencies and targeting the offenders with a varied set of tools. (2006, p. 6) By utilizing other agencies to achieve common goal, interorganizational conflict patterns can be minimized.

Conclusions

People join the police to fight crime, redirecting their efforts they perceive as to social work and hampering even those efforts makes the job of a policeman less attractive to potential officers.

Criminal justice researchers have decried the “paramilitary” structure of police management without considering that it is the bureaucratic aspects of command that have hindered police work by creating additional strain.

By combining a more effective, safer system with officers unhindered by organizational conflict, and by socializing the factors which create motivated officers within this system, we can make Centerville Police Department an organization that officers will want to work for.

Recommendations

1. A public relations campaign to explain how a new program of organization and departmental strategy will be more effective and relieve organizationally based job stress on officers. This PR campaign is dependent on the success of other reforms.
2. An ongoing training program to reinforce the positive norms of police culture that aid in reducing job stress; this training program will also maintain awareness of the department's overall strategies.
3. Implementation of two-unit patrols; having immediate peer support increases officer efficiency and safety; it also increases the power held by the line officer
4. Move to a flatter command structure with less management and greater responsibility on the line; however, a clearly defined chain of command is maintained.
5. Focus the overall crime fighting mission of the department to a “pulling levers” strategy targeting the “hot spots” of crime; this clarifies the goals and duties of the line officer, shares goals and responsibilities with other interested agencies, and reduces the potential for organizational conflict within our own department as well as with other agencies.

References

Braga, A. A., & Weisburd, D. L. (2006). Police Innovation and Crime Prevention: Lessons Learned from Police Research over the Past 20 Years. Retrieved from http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/218585.pdf?q=ideas-in-american-policing

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Cooper, C. (1997). Patrol police officer conflict resolution processes. Journal of Criminal Justice, 25(2), 87–101. Retrieved August 22, 2014 from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047235296000530

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